Homer †“The Odyssey Essay

It is surprising that Odysseus, ‘a master of stratagems,’ can also be reckless and impulsive? Throughout the Epic, The Odyssey, Odysseus is determined to be a survivor and return to Ithaca with a status appropriate to his own sense of excellence. Odysseus is not going to make any suicidal heroic stands on the battle field and refuses to compromise a very narrow sense of integrity. On the contrary, he is ready to use any stratagem to get home. Odysseus lies, accepts insults, disguises himself, represses his emotions and even conceals his true identity in order to get through his journey. Odysseus is impulsive and reckless. The Epic, is only the story it is due to Odysseus being a character of impulse and recklessness. He creates opportunities for events and challenges and also the opportunity to return home as a heroic icon. Odysseus was surely a ‘master of stratagems.’ Cunning, strong, skillful, courageous and patient. The King of Ithaca, leader of his people. He was both these things before he departed for Troy. Although he was a great king, admirable, and resourceful, at times Odysseus was also reckless and often acted impulsively. The roles of being a hero and a leader were always implied. In a search for glory and glamour Odysseus sought out danger, mocked death and ways prepared to accept an honorable death. He also risked the lives of his men. This was most evident in the Cyclopes saga, where Odysseus persisted in entering and remaining in the cave despite the pleas of his men to take what they could before the giant returned. He chose to be too greedy, because of his actions six of his men died. Odysseus could not resist the temptation of boasting to Polyohemus who had blinded the Cyclops, again despite the pleas of his men. Not knowing what he was playing around with, not just his life but the lives of his crew as any one of those boulders could have struck the vessels and destroyed the lot of them. Later, Eurylochus was to refer to this episode with the Cyclops when he virtually attempted suicide by resisting Odysseus plan to take the whole crew back to Circe’s palace. â€Å"Why are you looking for trouble – going to Circe’s palace, where she will turn you into pigs? We have had all this before, with the Cyclops, when our friends found their way into his fold with this foolhardy Odysseus. It was the man’s reckless folly that cost them their lives†(Homer 1991, book 10, line 430) There was a lack of trust between Odysseus and his crew at times. Odysseus’ lack of leadership and recklessness was clearly pointed out on the island of thrinacle. The crew broke their oath and disobeyed Odysseus’ commands about eating the cattle of Hyperion. This incident underlined their weaknesses and Odysseus’ iron will and self control-but also showed the limitations of his leadership. On the other hand, there is evidence of care and concern by Odysseus for his crew. He was a man of stratagems but at times acted purely on impulse which resulted in consequences that only made himself look reckless. A man who clearly had the ability to lead by example, as a king and military leader, he had the inspiration, confidence and loyalty. This is seen throughout the text many times. On his journey, though, circumstances were somewhat different, the individualism and egotism of the hero as well as his failure to communicate effectively on several occasions created distrust. A man of tremendous courage, although he made those impulsive decisions he did care for his crew. Without Odysseus being this character there would be no story, and The Epic probably would not exist today. This man was chosen to be a king and a leader of a crew for a reason. He may have gotten a little caught up in the glamour and glory at times, however he was appointed leader and king by the gods above. If the crew had been just as impulsive as their leader, and followed his commands then they to would have returned to Ithaca with their leader.

Authority and Social Identity Essay

In “The new psychology of leadership” (2007), the authors offer a new perspective about leadership, based not only on authority but on sharing a social identity with the people. The new concept of leadership is the ability to attain success by having followers wanting to do it instead of enforcing or rewarding them. To accomplish their goals, leaders must be situated among their group, be part of it. When goals are shared by common circumstances, they matter to the group as a whole, thus leaders that are able to represent the group better, have more influence over them. It should be a primary responsibility for the leader to understand values and opinions of the group in order to communicate effectively about what the group stands for and how their values should be reflected in their actions. LeaderÂ’s behavior and character affinity to the group defines how much control and inspiration can be imparted. However, any trait that separates the leader will hinder the chance for effective leadership. Other factors that influence leadership effectiveness are:•Show fairness when making decisions and resolving disputes, although fairness may depend on the perception of the group being led, therefore it is important to consider what itÂ’s fair for the group. •Leadership must shape and define norms conforming the groupÂ’s identity, which is based on shared beliefs and values. •GroupÂ’s social identity must be aligned with reality, since there is no chance of success for unrealistic goals that will eventually disappoint the group. Leaders need to be in touch with reality, and when required, align the groupÂ’s identity with his own. Based on the authorsÂ’ psychological analysis, leaders and followers must have the same identity that will be used to outline future actions. Many times in history, leaders lost their position because their actions depicted  a different identity from their group, and in some cases, only their individual identity. Development and nurturing a shared identity among leaders and their groups is the key for an effective and creative leadership. In FocusJuly 31, 2007The New Psychology of LeadershipRecent research in psychology points to secrets of effective leadership that radically challenge conventional wisdomBy Stephen D. Reicher, Michael J. Platow and S. Alexander HaslamFrom the August 2007 issue of Scientific American Mind

Is poverty the main factor affect crime

In the essay I'm going to talk about criminology and criminology is the scientific study of crime and criminals. Is one social group Involved In crime more than other social groups? Crime Is an unlawful act punishable by the state, harmful act or Arnold's against the public which the state wishes to prevent and which, upon conviction Is punishable by fine, imprisonment and in some countries death.No conduct constitutes a crime unless it is declared criminal in the laws of the country and poverty is the state of being extremely poor and being without things, having little none, not many material possessions and the need of essential goods. Being poor means people have nothing and struggle to survive every day. Some sociologist have suggest that being tortured with poverty after a while leads to evil thoughts and the struggle of being in the poverty cycle committing crimes gradually becomes a new way of them wanting to break out of the poverty cycle some say there a high correlation of poverty with crime .According to mainstream media under/working class citizens are more exposed towards crime, many theories of crime are based on national statistics with are taking out every year. According to official data the working class group are more likely to commit crimes then the middle class, sociologist have taken these figures and came up with theories on the case.Sociologist are beginning to seriously question if poverty is the main factor by using correctional data , this essay is going to argue about the factors affecting crime, if it's based on social statues or if more factors are involved. I will begin by stating that there actually is change in crime but also the people committing the crimes, although I'm talking about crime and the influences I'm still going to bring in other factor that ay have had an influence on the individuals committing the crimes . Or example psychical factor such as the biological explanations, sociological explanations and social biolo gical; I'm also going to be talking about the modern crime theories, sociology theories of crime, subcultures explanation of crime, biology theories and crime, genetics and criminal behavior ,psychological theories of crime and personality and crime expansions are psychology factors I'm going to people talking about and I'm going to talk about sociologist theories such as other crimes such as fraud, crime of passion , serial murder etc.Bear absolutely no link to poverty this suggest they may be an inverse link, since poor people are not in a position to carry out a crime like fraud or insider trading. No matter how much norms and values an individual has if poverty threatens his or her life then there likely to indulge into such criminal acts and could try to attack the prevailing social structure. Mom timer honest people who hate corruption from the depth of their soul fails to keep their mental balance and due to pressure of poverty they indulge Into crimes just to maintain their existence , the mainstream media only looks at the crime committed Instead of ending the real cause that lead the committee to such and act.Psychology AS for AKA [Crawled Clark Mildred] Fourth Edition psychopathology (Abnormality) section I used Psychology AS for AKA to do research on Freud this was a really good start for me, it clearly showed the psychology behind and crime and how I could structure is in my essay. But in reality I had to do more research of psychology behind crime on the internet because the book wasn't able to give out clear criticism of Freud theory and the criticism were needed in order for me to have a balanced argument.Overall the psychology be was very useful in giving me point hat I can adapted on and structure it into the essay but even though the little bit of information they had was helpful I personally believe it wasn't enough to help Sociology AY for AKA [Stephen moored Steve Chapman Dave Keen] Third edition crime and deviance section I used sociolog y AY for AKA to do research on criminology, I personally believe out of the entire book I went though it had the most information for me, it was useful and very resourceful.But the only problem I had with the book is that it had a lack of criticism for my essay and I needed it to keep my argument balanced. Overall, the sociology book was the most useful out of everything in my research but even though it was useful it still pushed me to for further research. John William] the seductions of crime' In this newspaper article John William tried to explain why crime exist with sociological evidence supporting what he has written, this was useful because [Tracy childish and Robert McDonald] ‘Understanding youth subcultures' Discussion MARXISM AND CRIME Marxist theory in general is that they believe that capitalism can only thrive though the explorations of the working class, Marxist believes that they're a clear link teen human nature and the way we operate in a capitalist society.M arxist believes that capitalism is not only an economic system but is also a political system, in all aspects of society ; this provides the bourgeoisie with a supple mass of workers who do not mind working for external rewards of a constant wage. Some people say that the main factor that links in with crime is poverty and strong example of people who think this is Marxist. Marxist see crime as not coming from moral or biological defects but defects with social order (social control), Marxist say that crime happens because of social class differences . Irking class crimes are a lot more common if you don't conform to the unjust system then you will be punished, for example intuitions such as the polices and the Justice system encourage individuals to conform. Marxist argues that white collar crimes with tend to be committed but middle class are ignored , while blue collar crime which are crime committed by working and underclass such are robbery are more focused on in the media. Mar xist say this is a superstructure because it maintains and reflects ruling class ideology. The state (people in politics) who are part of the middle class pass laws which is inefficiency towards them .Laws are made by the state which represent interest of the state which has positive impact on ruling class and negative on working. Marxist would also argue that crime is an inevitable part of capitalism as it stem from social inequalities because working class crime is caused by labor exploitation and lack or materials. Traditional Marxist believes that majority of the population are exploited by the ruling class (the bourgeoisie), exploitation provides the key to explaining why less privilege people commit crimes. They focus on the unequal conflict between the woo classes of society.Marxist believe it's by nature it inevitably causes crime, this is called carcinogenic ; Marxist see crime in the capitalist system as a tool of the ruling class where they can control the working class a nd crime Marxist say crime is unavoidable because of the result of the oppression the working class are in by the state. An example of were the state oppresses the working/underclass is that 80% of laws that exist is to protect private property, this suggest that the state are more concerned about martial and possession then they do about they're society and the peoples well-being.Neo Marxist are another branch of Marxism also known as radical criminology; they discuss more contemporary ideas of crime. They believe that the Marxist theory is too simplistic they are wider factors that lead to recidivism. Traditional Marxist view crime in 3 key aspects; Carcinogenic capitalism – idea that crime is inevitable because of the nature of capitalism is Marxist idea that crime and their ideas e. G. Such as saying crime is a result out of political anger.Carcinogenic capitalism is the Marxist idea that crime is inevitable because of the nature of fatalism. ; The state and law making- l aw enforces widely supports the ruling class over the working class because the law making widely supports the ruling class over the working class, Marxist claim that laws enforced are very selective and repressive e. G. The police largely ignores crimes of the powerful in society and instead focus on; Ideological functions of crime and law-Marxist claim sometimes laws are passed that- on surface to benefit the working class.According to the Marxist theory of crime it highly suggests that they do believe that poverty is the main factor when talking bout crime. However, one criticism of Marxist theory towards crime is white collar crimes. White-collar crime refers to financially motivated nonviolent crime committed sociologist Edwin Sutherland in 1939 as â€Å"a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation. † An example of a white collar crime is false advertising, anti-trust violations, environmental pollution or dumping product on the market below cost.This goes against Marxist theory because they believe that crime is only done by the working class because of the huge divide teen the upper and the working class but Marxist theory doesn't explain why middle class people are committing crimes. White collar crime carried in a business or fraud. Because most of the time it is done on a smaller scale, it is harder to detect when the crime is being committed. However, when it is caught out, a lot of the time the criminal isn't punished as harshly.Reasons for this could be that the crime isn't as serious as violent crimes or to save the reputation of the company that the person has been stealing from whilst working there. However, in larger scale situations, the crime is more than likely to be reported. One the other hand, another criticism to Marxist is Cambridge University study and they came to the conclusion that Poverty is not an excuse for crime as morality is the biggest factors commit crime beca use they lack morals and not Just because of the environment they live in, according to a new study.Cambridge University studied around 700 young people in Petrography for over a decade and discovered that most adolescent crime is not Just because of poverty. In fact, while it is agreed that urban environments trigger some young people to commit crime, it is their morality which is the biggest factor. Other managers that were experiencing similar situations as the young criminals remain highly resistant to committing crime because they were raised with morality.Functionalist perspective on crime Functionalist main theory is that believe social order benefits everyone, crime is bad as the weak suffer, social progress would be limited by disorder and all would suffer, thus crime must be limited, some crime can be positive. They believe some crime can be positive because can act a warning device, can help society progress, provides employment, acts as a safety valve, helps social cohes ion, reinforces the boundaries f society.Druthers believed in consensus and the need for social order, basis of society was a set of shared values which guide our actions called the collective conscience, tells us what is acceptable and what is not, re-affirming boundaries, and anomie. Functionalist believe that crime is inevitable in society, this means that it's almost impossible for crime not to exist because not everyone will buy into the collective sentiments of society and some few may deviate from these social norms and beliefs Druthers argued that crime is an inevitable and normal aspect of social life.Crime is present in all types of society; indeed, the crime rate is higher in the more advanced, industrialized countries. According to Druthers, crime is an ‘integral part of all healthy societies'. It's inevitable because not every member of society can be equally committed to the collective sentiments (the shared values and moral beliefs) of society since individuals are exposed to different influences and circumstances, it is ‘impossible for all to be alike' . Functionalist believes that certain amount of crime and deviance as normal and an integral part of all healthy societies.This is because it acts as a ‘safety valve', providing a relatively harmless way for someone to express their discontent. For example, Cohen said that â€Å"prostitution family', this is because he believed this crime of prostitution could relieve the stress in a discrete way without damaging the rest of the clients life. Clarinda said crime also served the function of acting as a warning device. This is because the crime indicates that there is an aspect of society that is malfunctioning. So the crime draws attention to the problem within society, which can then be fixed.Druthers said that crime in society isn't genetically produced, but is natural in society. However, he did say that too much crime was dangerous in a society, and this is an idea Morton de veloped. To conclude Functionalist believe that crime is inevitable which means that anyone can commit it, this is because not everyone will buy into the collective sentiments of society and some may deviate from these norms and beliefs. However, Druthers doesn't explain why certain people are more likely to commit crimes than others.He appears not concerned with this problem – he was most interested in the nature of the relationship between crime and order in society. If questioned on individual motivations of criminals, he would probably have invoked their lack of solicitation. Also, he stresses harmony of society and the belief that the law reflects the interests and views of the majority of the population, but he seems to ignore the concept of power – it is generally accepted that in all societies some groups have greater ability than the bulk of the population to influence the law making process.Marxist, for example, argue that the powerful in society control the law making system along with everything else and thus are able to pass laws which eight appear to be fair but which actually work to help preserve their position of power. Thus, the criminal system may not be as harmonious as Functionalists believe; indeed, Functionalists are often criticized for looking at life through rose tinted glasses which means they see everything as it was positive but they don't look at the true picture.Biological theory of crime Another factor they may have a link to crime is the biological theories of crime. Biological Theory is a peer-reviewed scientific Journal covering the fields of evolution and cognition. Biological theories are based on the nature versus nurture debate. Are we born criminals or do we learn crime, biological theories also see crime as a form of illness caused by pathological; factors specific to certain classes of individuals which is bad behavior vs.. Sick behavior. ‘Does the way you look say that you are a criminal?Limbos (18 76) introduced the first theory. We can assume that some people are â€Å"born criminals†Punishment is inapplicable. Limbos (1876) believed that you have an innate predisposition towards criminal behavior, In other words crime is something you are born to do. We frequently make inferences about another arson's character based on his/her appearance Ancient Greeks and Romans believed in â€Å"physiognomy' (physical features can reveal a person's natural disposition) for example â€Å"Do not trust beardless men and bearded women† .Cesar Limbos was an Italian criminologist who in 1876 promoted the theory of ‘anthropological determinism' that essentially stated that criminality was inherited and that someone â€Å"born criminal†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ could be identified by physical defects, which confirmed a criminal as savage. Limbos believed that by studying someone's physical features, you could identify a potential criminal. Lumbago's criteria for this cheekbones, flatte ned or upturned nose; handle-shaped ears; large chins, very prominent in appearance; hawk-like noses or fleshy lips; hard shifty eyes, scanty beard or baldness and insensitivity to pain.Limbos finally concluded that a criminal would have long arms. Lumbago's studies of female criminality began with measurements of females' skulls and photographs in his search for â€Å"atavism†. He concluded that female criminals were rare and showed few signs of â€Å"degeneration† because they had â€Å"evolved less than men due to the inactive nature of their lives†. Limbos argued it was the females' natural passivity that withheld them from breaking the law, as they lacked the intelligence and initiative to become criminal.Limbos had also stated that these criminals behaved in a different way to everyone else. These different behaviors are as follows an inability to adjust to social and moral issues an inability to differentiate between right and wrong, a low inability to sh ow any kind of guilt or remorse, an inability to show any kind of feelings toward, and an inability to form any kind of relationship. However, Biological theory as much criticism but in the following paragraph I'm only going to speak on 3 of them.The first criticism is Goring (1913) in his experiment he criticized Limbos on the issue of born criminal and found that such thesis is inaccurate as well as dangerous, he tested a group of criminals and non-criminals to see if they showed any differences in behavior and he found that no significant difference between them, he then concluded that no one is criminal until he or she commits a crime.Another criticism of the biological theory is environmental factors, this is because hey may have had a poor family history in which they were deprived of their mother at a young age (hence maternal deprivation) or they lived in poverty for many years and had trouble coping with bills or buying food to eat. They may have been subjected to crime at a young age because they may have had a parent who took drugs or smoked and if there was no money to buy the drugs then they would be made to steal in order to get the money.However, the next criticism of the biological approach is stereotyping and encouraging stereotyping would then encourage prejudice and discrimination. For example if children are shown a picture of a man with upturned nose; handle-shaped ears or large chins , they will indicate a negative attribution towards the picture rather than to a picture of a man without upturned nose; handle-shaped ears; large chins (these features on a man are known to be a good indicator of being a criminal).Yet, the only problem with stereotyping is that there is no strong evidence to prove it and that the research methods used were defective. It has also been criticized on methodological grounds because a proper control group hasn't been used so it can't be reliable. Psychological explanations of criminal behavior Psychological theor y which has first developed by Freud this states that all humans have natural drives and urges that is repressed in the unconscious. Additionally, all humans have criminal tendencies. These tendencies are curbed, however, through the process of Colonization.A child that is improperly socialized, then, could develop a personality disturbance that causes him or her to direct antisocial impulses either inward or outward. Those who direct them inward become neurotic while those that direct them outward become criminal. Freud had his own views on what makes a as a result of an overdeveloped superego. People with overdeveloped superegos feel guilty for no reason and wish to be punished in order to relieve this guilt they are feeling and committing crimes is a method of obtaining such desired punishment and relieving guilt.In effect, a person commits the crime so that they can get punished and thus relieve guilt – the guilt comes before the crime. According to this view, crime is a result of a poorly integrated psyche. Freud also identified the â€Å"pleasure principle†; that humans have basic unconscious biological urges and a sire for immediate gratification and satisfaction. This includes desires for food, sex, and survival. Freud believed that if these could not be acquired legally, people would instinctively try to do so illegally.Freud also believed that people have the ability to learn in early childhood what is right and what is wrong and though we may have an instinctive nature to acquire what we desire, such nature can be controlled by what is learned in our early years. He believed that people primarily get moral principles as a young child from their parents and that if these were missing because of poor renting, that child would grow up into being less able to control natural urges to acquire whatever is needed. However, the greatest criticism of the psychodrama approach is that it is unscientific in its analysis of human behavior.Many of t he concepts central to Fraud's theories are subjective and as much impossible to scientifically test. For example, how is it possible to scientifically study concepts like the unconscious mind? In this respect the psychodrama perspective is unfeasible as the theories cannot be empirically investigated. However, Kline (1989) argues that the psychodrama approach comprises a series of hypotheses, some of which are more easily tested than others, and some with more supporting evidence than others.Also, whilst the theories of the psychodrama approach may not be easily tested, this does not mean that it does not have strong explanatory power. Nevertheless, most of the evidence for psychodrama theories is taken from Fraud's case studies e. G. Little Hans. The main problem here is that the case studies are based on studying one person in detail, and with reference to Freud the individuals in question are most often middle aged women from Vienna I. . His patients. This makes generalizations to the wider population (e. G. The whole world) difficult.Another problem with the case study method is that it is susceptible to researcher bias. Re-examination of Fraud's own clinical work suggests that he sometimes distorted his patients' case histories to ‘fit' with his theory Galloway, 1991. The humanistic approach makes the criticism that the psychodrama perspective is too deterministic – leaving little room for the idea of personal agency I. E. Free will. Finally, the psychodrama approach can be criticized for being sexist against women. For example, Freud believed that females' penis new made them inferior to males.He also thought that females tended to develop weaker super ego and to be more probe to anxiety than males. Also the theory such as id ego and superego are difficult to define and research. Sub cultural Explanations of crime Subcultures theories are theories which examine the behavior and actions of various groups within society these groups which rej ect or depart from the subcultures, and subcultures theories attempt to explain why these groups most are concerned with youth gangs' and gang delinquency engaged in criminal acts . N 955 Albert Cohen came up with status frustration ,this is seen as a functional perspective of subcultures behavior (it improves their status) many working class youths who cannot gain status legitimately, become frustrated and therefore try to gain status through illegitimate means then they create their own subculture and reject the norms and values of mainstream society. Cohen have noted that Delinquency was lower in areas of high economic status while it was seen to be high in areas of low economic status linking back to Marxist theory that people of a lower class background are more likely to commit crime.Their studies also found that these findings remained constant over time, They therefore came to the conclusion that â€Å"delinquency-producing factors are inherent in the Community and is cultu rally transmitted. Another explanations for subcultures and crime is Miller (1992) and Miller does not see the criminal behavior occurring due to the inability of the lower class groups to achieve success. Instead, he explains crime in terms of the existence of a distinctive lower class subculture.He believes that this lower class group has for centuries possessed their own culture and traditions with a fundamentally different room those in the higher classes. This thus suggests that this lower class culture has been passed on not by one generation but for much longer than this. What are the Concerns of this Culture, Compared with the Higher Strata? Toughness: this involves a concern for masculinity and finds expression in courage in the face of physical threat and a rejection of timidity and weakness.In practice this can result in assault, and battery as the group attempt to maintain their ‘reputation'. Smartness: this involves the ‘capacity to outfox, outwit, dupe, and take others. Groups that use these sequences, include the hustler, conman, and the cardsharp, the pimp and pickpocket and petty thief. Excitement: Involves the search for thrills', for emotional stimulus. In Practice it is sought in gambling, sexual adventures and booze, which can be obtained by a traditional night out on the town. Fate: They believe that little can be done about their lives – what will be will be†¦Trouble: young working class males accept their lives will involve violence, and they Will not run away from fights. However , one criticism of sub cultural theory is Miller claim that the six focal encores are central of sub cultural tradition but he doesn't give enough evidence to show that this is lower class values , therefore how are we supposed to trust miller theory on sub cultural if it's not reliably. Also miller says that it applies to male's right across the class structure but doesn't give any mythological evidence.Another fundamental weakness of these theories stems from precisely this: an overemphasis on the importance of a ‘gang response' to crimes, it places far too much attention on a group response rather than on individual responses. Notwithstanding the fact that cost Juvenile crime such as Joy-riding is conducted by ‘gangs', these theories fail to explain why crimes such as rape and murder, which are very individualistic, occur Gender and crime According to official static there an overwhelming predominance of males compared with females on committing crimes.Given this there has to be something in the these difference . Len the paragraph I'm going to explain why there are gender differences in offending rates and to be able to explain sociological evidence for the reasons from different offending rates,. Sex-role theory argues that women are less keel to commit crime than men because there are core elements of the female role that limit their ability and opportunity to do so. There are a number of differe nt versions, all of which can fit quite comfortably together.The first form of sex role theory is solicitation, this is the process by which children and adults learn from others. We begin learning from others during the early days of life; and most people continue their social learning all through life process : according to this approach, girls are socialized to be famine, polite and innocent while boys are socialized to be masculine strong and powerful. Over all this explains the large inequality when it comes to crime suggesting it's not males fault that they commit crime its societies fault for enforcing social roles on children.According to Gender and crime theory male colonization is the main factor of crime. The second form of sex role theory is Normalization this is the idea that males are opportunist because they have m However, the gender and crime theory is criticized because Frances hedonism say that criminology has tended to be dominated by males, in the main they have been studied by men and the studies have been about men. This may be an explanation of the big difference between males and females in crime .Frances hedonism has suggested 3 reasons for this and the first one is the most obvious and it's that male dominance of offenders this has an impact because many sociologist are more likely going to study them rather than the minority of female offenders . The second explanation for lack of information on female crime is male domination in sociology and this suggest that the majority of academics have been male this suggest investigations have been a reflection of males view points and intersect.And the last reason hedonism put forward was sociological theorizing this is the idea that male sociologist constructed there theories and not thinking how It could be applied to females, this is because most traditional theories are gender blind in affect that means they ignore the specific viewpoint of women. To conclude the objectives of this essay was to argue if one social group involved in crime more than other social groups?Make a clear distinction between what other factors cause crime, to analysis the arguments for and against whether poverty is a justification of crime and to draw a conclusion to weather poverty is the mother of crime. I believe that in my argument I was able to reach all my objectifies . The original purpose of this study is to examine the different perspective on crime and come to a sensible conclusion on whether it was Justified for people under the bread line to commit crimes and to come to a conclusions if it is fair for them to go prison if being court..By looking at the evidence and argument, I must conclude that poverty is a key factor when approaching the theory of crime, the reason why I say this is cause both Marxist and the sub cultural theories both agree one the fact the poverty and crime have and ongoing relationship, but they also bring in key evidence to back .But according to the info rmation I got from my AY sociology book middle class individual It would have been unwise from the outset to assume that I would have come to an absolute Answer to my research question due to the wide range of factors that have been researched. The project has allowed me to explore to a great depth a topic not only of great interest to me, But one that will bear great important during my future as a social psychologist.

Toxicological Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Toxicological - Research Paper Example Some aromatic amines are under utilization as carcinogens in industries. Research was conducted to find what industries emitted these aromatic amines and to what extent these were damaging to the environment and the people around. It was an observation that the plastic, chemical, and dye industries emitted these in high amounts. Bladder tumors are a common side effect of these aromatic amines and the people who encounter these harmful gases often suffer from these diseases. â€Å"Auramine, naphthylamine, benzidine, and aminodiphenyl† (Walpole, 1959) were common aromatic amines that were believed to be one of the main chemicals causing bladders problems amongst workers working in these industries. Other effects of these amines include â€Å"drowsiness, headaches and dizziness that eventually lead to the person experiencing lack of coordination, muscular pain, contractions, a state of confusion, etc† (Books, 2010). These harmful gases may also cause certain respiratory pr oblems and liver diseases. Various laboratory tests and field researches were conducted to identify the exact side effects. Tests on animals were also conducted to find out the toxic effects of aromatic amines (Walpole, 1959). References Books. (2010). Aromatic Amines. General Books LLC. Walpole, A. L.

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IPO - Case Study Example Most companies and opinions believe that the new year brings forth the increased earning potential of shares. In addition to this, most companies pay out bonuses and dividends as the year comes to a close. This therefore means that investors might have funds to participate in the initial public offering. v) The decision to involve the selected underwriters might have been well informed and carefully selected. The selected underwriters might have sent a positive message to the investors and therefore increasing their confidence and hope in the company’s prospective earnings. vi) In my informed opinion, the cost charged was fair bearing in mind the positive past track record of the underwriting companies chosen. This therefore could have influenced positively the decisions of the investors to participate on the public offering. Investor confidence on the parties involved is all it takes for a success in the initial public offering. I therefore believe that the compensation was fair and appropriate. vii) The overallotment offer to the underwriters acts like an incentive for them since they can use the overallotment funds to make some quick profits in the financial market as the allotment funds await to be returned back to investors. viii) The choice of the company’s listing venue was appropriate. NASDAQ is one of the leading stock markets in the world. Therefore, any company that lists there is regarded and perceived as a potential goldmine for the investors. This therefore influenced positively the decision of the investors to participate in the initial public offer. In addition, the venue has different categories where issuing companies can list according to their interests and prospects. ix) When companies issue shares to the public, the public is normally hopeful about the growth potential of the stock. This positive mindset and feedback might have resulted in an increase in the share price on the first day of trading. However, after

Organisation and behaviour Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Organisation and behaviour - Assignment Example It further seeks to investigate the approaches of these organizations to their management. Style of Leadership The success of Berkshire and its founder, Warren Buffett starts with leadership. Buffett’s leadership has the capability of adapting to changing world. The success of Buffett’s leadership style is reflected in the performance of his company. The annual report 2010 of Berkshire stated that they tend to let their subsidiary companies operate in their own. They do not monitor or supervise them to any extent. Many managers utilize the liberty in a magnificent manner and preserve an owner-oriented behavior. Warren Buffett’s employs the laissez-faire style of management, which increased the stock of the company by 19.8%. Laissez-faire style of management thrives at Berkshire because every organization has its own culture. Berkshire does not enforce the conventional human resource. If it had done it, then laissez-faire would not have worked at Berkshire. Buffet t believes that enforcing autonomy creates pressure on CEOs. He encourages his leaders by convincing them that they can do more than they believe they can and it will take three people to replace each of them. A contrasting organization to Berkshire is Trump Organization, where the founder Donald Trump runs the organization in an autocratic style. He has centralized all the decision-making power to himself and to a group of few selected people. This type of leadership style limits the inputs of rest of the employees. Trump exhibits an eccentric style of leadership. This is shown in every piece of real estate that he owns. Every building, gold course, or casino has his name on it. Trump is considered as the positive example of autocratic leadership. According to his employees, though he keeps gentleness out of spotlight, but in essence, he is more generous than anyone would believe due to this reputation. It is not about which style is being implemented. It entirely depends on how it is being implemented. If leaders are confident, capable, and motivated, it can work well. Modern Management Theories When it comes to Donald Trump, it is quite evident that Henri Fayol’s 14 principles are applied to greater extent. Trump’s style of management clearly integrates elements mentioned by Henry Fayol. Unity of Command, Centralization, Discipline, Authority of Work, Division of Work, Scalar Chain, and Order are named as few. The common element among all these principles is autocracy and autonomy, which is decently reflected in the workplace and organizational culture of Trump Organization. The span of control and attention is limited to one person only, who has all the decision making power. It is staff’s responsibility to show initiative within the limits of discipline and authority. Uniform goals and similar direction is constructed for all the employees of the entire organization. In contrast to that, the style of Warren Buffet contradicts with con temporary capitalism. Warren Buffet understands the Systems Theory. Buffett is aware of how different systems affect the workers and how the system is affected by workers. A system constitutes of variety of different parts that work together in order to achieve a goal. Systems theory allows leader to evaluate events and patterns in the workplace. Warren buffet is aware of what inputs need to be inserted into the system in order to achie

Trouble-shooting for social media Research Paper

Trouble-shooting for social media - Research Paper Example This will enable the Social media director to deliberate on object course of action in case something goes wrong. The hashtag was used for about two hours after when they realized that it was leading to negative publicity. Unfortunately, McDonalds Social media director, Rick Won pulled off the hashtag and admitted that it had failed in achieving the intended purpose. Instead of pulling down the tweets, they could have used them from a public relations point of view to turn the negative publicity into positive publicity. Policies should be put in place to deal with the negativity instead of pulling down the negative feedback. This can involve responding to individual customers who left negative feedback and engage them on the services and products offered by the business. At the end, many of such customers end up becoming loyal customers, pin down their initial negative feedback and instead post positive feedback. McDonald failed to track what their customers were posting on other social media sites. Even after the hashtag was removed, the public continued to outburst with a lot of unintended stories in Facebook and Instagram. Failure to monitor such action led to continued negative publicity despite pulling down the hashtag on twitter. McDonald should put in place a social mention tracking tool which monitor what customers are saying about their brand on other social sites. They will enable them respond to emergency situations before significant damage is

M chap 3 Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

M chap 3 - Coursework Example scale and large scale businesses may always employ certain approaches as well as techniques relevant to changes in consumer behavior (Dietrich and Media, 2015)s. In marketing, businesses always need to acquit themselves with certain information from their consumers including their locations, what they want, as well as who their real consumers are. Changes in consumer behaviors always make businesses to conduct thorough researches, as well as, surveys in order to know what the consumers want. For example, in case they fail to satisfy the changing consumer interests and needs, marketing of such products may be compromised and can easily fail. As such, the businesses always conduct surveys and research through sales forecasts, internet researches, as well as, market sensing (Dietrich and Media, 2015). This gives them a competitive advantage in the marketing spectrum as they deeply understand the needs of their customers, failure to which, can lead to failure of the companies. It is important to note that the issue of consumer behavior is also affected by the economy of the United States in certain ways. For instance, if the economy strengthens, the consumer demands and tastes increases (Rao, 2010). However, if the economy faces some crises, the consumers also feel these economic crises, thereby limiting their consumption demands. It is of critical significance to note that changes in consumer behavior are not influenced by any legislation. This is because consumer behaviors are majorly dictated by their own personal interests, tastes and preferences. As such, it is important to note that consumer behavior can affect the market in various ways. According to my opinion, consumer behavior always controls the markets in various ways. as such, the changes in consumer behavior can always make some companies to experience big losses if they do not device effective marketing strategies to approach the situations occasioned by the changes in consumer behaviors. Therefore,

Corporate Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Corporate Finance - Essay Example TSR is defined as a measure that helps in evaluating the performance of different company’s shares and stocks over the passage of time. It takes into account appreciation of share price and payment of dividends in order to show the total shareholder’s return and is expressed as percentage. It is calculated after considering capital gain, which is accrued after purchase of company’s share. In calculating TSR, it is assumed that the dividends are reinvested in the company shares (Rexam Plc, 2014b). Through calculation of TSR, the performance of share is compared over the period of time. This is the main advantage of calculating TSR as it shows the exact position of the share even if it has high growth and low dividend or low growth and high dividend. After collecting relevant information from the annual reports of the two companies mentioned above, TSR is calculated. The information needed for the same are share price at the end and beginning of the year along with the dividend that are paid out to the shareholders. This information has helped to calculate the TSR of the companies, which are provided in the following table (Rexam Plc, 2014a): The above table reflects the change or fluctuation in the value of TSR over the 7 years. It is observed that the TSR value of Rexam Plc has increased over the years from a negative value since 2007. During the period 2007-2009, the company was unable to maintain a positive TSR mainly due to its poor performance in the industry, which occurred mainly due to the insufficient sales. However, positive TSR after 2009 indicates that the company has improved its share price performance, which is the result of increase in sales. Presently, the company has satisfied customers by offering them with good return and higher dividends, which are reinvested in company shares that are issued for them. From the above table it is evident that GSK has encountered

Desert Flora Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Desert Flora - Essay Example Olive trees are in abundance in the Mediterranean desert toward the north of the Sahara desert. Plants found in the desert of Utah include mesquite (Prosopis), Cacti, and Yucca. Perennials, unlike, annuals, survive in the Utah desert all the time. Some perennials have deep root systems to reach the subterranean water. For example, Yucca’s roots exist 40 feet below the ground surface whereas the roots of mesquite (Prosopis) can penetrate up to 100 feet below the surface (Andersen, 1996, p. 5). The desert of Utah has an open nature with shrubs spaced widely apart. This speaks of the low content of moisture and is suggestive of extensive underground roots’ pattern. The main factor the limits the plants’ survival in the desert of Utah is water. Plants have different structural mechanisms to deal with this problem. Waxy coatings on the plants’ stems serve to reflect heat and reduce evaporation e.g. the leaves of Incienso covered with dense fine hairs serve the very

Professional Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Professional Development - Essay Example In addition, they should be able to set their objectives and strategies to achieve their targets. Therefore, students who are undertaking engineering courses should learn these skills during and after studies to perfect their careers (Blandford, 2012, p.47). Communication barrier and inability to plan their work and interact with others may paralyze the achievement in their targets. Communication Engineers interact with different people during their ordinary activities (Ritchie, 2007, 164). Therefore, they should possess different skills for sharing knowledge with their colleagues and clients in order to increase their work efficiency (Kalman, 2008, p. 156). I have interacted with my fellow students as their group leader during various discussions. I also chair various meetings with fellow engineers at different levels. In addition, I compile technical reports regarding various issues we discuss in our group meetings. This has equipped me with relevant skills for gathering informatio n and giving immediate response questions posed by group members. My weakness is in presenting those reports to my colleagues. I aspire to learn various techniques of addressing meetings using different presentation skills. I will achieve this by learning gradually from others and enriching my vocabularies and by requesting my colleagues to challenge me with questions regarding the presentations I make (Baillie and Moore, 2004, p. 181). Group activities are equipping students on various ways of acquiring information and addressing various issues which may affect their profession (Ritchie, 2007, 158). Therefore, this will help me to learn how interact with my colleagues effectively. Working with Others Engineers should be able to handle issues arising at work place. Therefore, since they deal with individuals from different background such as clients and workers, they should be able to reconcile them whenever there is a disagreement (Blandford, 2012, p.49). During training, they shou ld be able to share their ideas and respect views of others (Baillie, and Moore, 2004, p.182). So during group discussions, I share my views and argue decisively to influence my colleagues to side with my decisions. This is essential because, later in our profession some contractors may opt to use cheap materials to save cost. However, with these skills, I will be able to convince them apply appropriate process in order to produce quality work and balance with cost of providing quality work. In our discussion group, I always try to convince my colleagues to listen to my views (Baillie and Moore, 2004, p.178). I’m able to control my discussion group by resolving all disagreements. During our group discussions, I sometimes impose my suggestions on others and seek their support. By leading my fellow students in school, I have acquired skills to manage contractors and other workers as professional engineer. The major predicaments I have encountered as group leader is where group members have differing opinions from others. Sometimes none of those opinions seems to be right or wrong. Therefore, it becomes tough to create mutual agreement under such circumstances. Such issues may require additional time to look for amicable solution, which incorporates suggestions of each member. Improving Own Learning and Performance Engineers should be acquiring knowledge from time to time to ensure they keep abreast with emerging

Big Industries Essay Example for Free

Big Industries Essay Many things that happened in history had a major impact on the world, especially when the development of big industries came about. Such things as Go-Getters, people credited for bringing the country together, and railroads, which interconnected things, all helped begin the Industrial Revolution. It was started mainly in Western Europe- England. One of the greatest things established was the Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, which made it easier to travel ocean to ocean from a month, to a week. The only problem was that there was no way to tell the exact time of departure and arrival. People counted on the sun, which was not most accurate. After a while, people relied on Philadelphia time, which still had its defaults. Shortly after, men were sent to go fix the problem, and in 1883, at noon, everyone set to Standard Time, (One of 4 time zones. ) This made it easier for people who used the train as transportation, to know the exact times of departure and arrival. Another development involved in railroad transportation was the invention of, Standard Gauge, created by George Stevenson. This was a gauge set at 4 feet, 8. 5 inches, that showed how far apart rails had to be from each other. By 1869, the Transcontinental Railroad was completed in standard gauge. The South changed over to it as well in 1886, and the entire nation used it. Later on, a Go-Getter named Rockefellar, made his fortune through oil. He organized companies into pools, where all prices were the same, and there was no competition. He made it so that there was no conspiracy, which was anything that involved different prices. He built a company, known as the Trustee, which controlled all the businesses. The first trust, was called Standard Oil. Two other Go-Getters were Morgan and Carnegie. Morgan was a rich organizer who bought all bankrupted companies, and Carnegie was poor, but made money in grain trading. Shortly after, he moved into the steel industry. In 1900, he made 25 million dollars in the steel business. Morgan offered to buy his steel business for 420-480 billion dollars, and soon after, he produced 60% of the countries steel. When rock oil came along, it changed the world. A man named Bissell opened a rock oil company in Western Pennsylvania. This company was used for medicinal purposes; it was not a moneymaker. He gave a Yale professor named Ben Sillimah, 500 dollars to figure out what to do with it. He figured out that if the oil was distilled, it could operate better than kerosene used as a lubricant. Their problem was getting oil, because it could only be found in lakes, so Bissell sent Edwin Drake to find another way to drill for oil. He stopped in Titusville, and found a man named Uncle Billy Smith to drill for him. It took him 3 months to get 70 feet below the surface. One day, he found oil, and it began the oil rush. Pennsylvania became an oil field. Rockefellar started his business in Cleveland, Ohio. He bought his first oil refinery in 1865. He went to a railroad company and said that he needed to transport barrels of oil, and if they did not help him with the expensive price to do so, he would go to another company to help him, and make them bankrupt. They agreed, and gave him a rebate. After that, he went to a little company and told them to sell their company to him, but they gave him practically nothing. Soon after, he built his own pipeline, where he manufactured oil lamps, and sold it to the Chinese. The oil industry grew and exploded when automobiles were invented. Between the years of 1860 and 1910, 23 million people immigrated from Europe. In 1860, the government passed a law, making a 10-hour workday for every worker, but no one went around enforcing it. People usually worked 12 hours. In 1868, an 8-hour workday law was passed, but it only applied to government work. Usually people got paid in piecework, which was that they would get paid for the amount of products they made. This was favorable for young people. Later on, a man named Fredrick Taylor developed Efficiency Work. In 1881, he examined the factories and everyones job, and put they into tasks. He put a time on each part of the task, which meant that they could not do as they pleased and everything was a on a time scale. There was also a product/craftsmen relationship. Workers were seen as machines. They worked in a strict environment. There was much noise, poor ventilation, and poor lighting. In 1882, there were up to 675 people killed a week. Woman also worked, but had poorer jobs, and poorer pay. They had simple task jobs, such as sewing. There was no room for advancement. In 1890, the U. S. conducted a census. 9% of the population owned 75% of the wealth. This caused resentment against workers. Cooperation instead of competition began in Europe in 1830. Karl Marx wrote a communist manifesto. Most people turned to trade unions. In 1837, a panic came about, and it was a year of depression. After the Civil War, unions came about more. They provided for members during hard times. In the 1860s and 1870s unions began to nationalize. In 1869, the Knights of Labor erupted. It organized many different groups, such as farmers, factory workers, office workers- skilled and unskilled, and African Americans. Many members believed in strikes, and won the strike against a railroad company, which boosted membership to over 700,000. It controlled money, votes, and fields of work. This was called the American Federation of Labor. A man named Samuel Gompers took people of one skill, and broke them down into specific areas. In 1892, he gained 250,000 members, but women and Africans were excluded. They felt that women took away bargaining power from the union. Employees working in a factory believed in collective bargaining, which instead of one person doing the same thing at a time to negotiate demands, one did everything for all. They tried to get closed shops, which was a place where you had to join the union to work there. Employers believed in forbidding meetings, and firing union organizers. They made workers promise to not join the unions, and refused to recognize union representatives. They thought that workers most powerful tool was a strike, which was a risk to ones entire life. In 1877, B O Railroad spread across the entire country, and demanded better working conditions and better pay. In 1892, the Homestead Strike was developed in Homestead, Pennsylvania. The Pinkertons were called upon to break up union strikes. The last of the great strikes was Pullmans Strike. Pullman was a train/car maker, who built for his workers. In 1894, he laid-off and cut wages, which made people very angry. His workers went to protest, so he fired 3 out of 5 of them. The strike spread throughout the country, so employers turned to the government and President Grover Cleveland for help. All laborers had to go back to work by the force of troops that had been sent. This started a trend so that whenever workers went on strike, owners could go to the federal government for help. A man named Thomas Edison, who started out in a city to improve technology for the stock ticker, received a bonus of 40,000 dollars, and left to open a business in New Jersey. He invented many things, but his favorite of them all was the Phonograph. He invented the light bulb with the help of Lewis Latimer, and hooked up New York City buildings to a power plant. By 1890, power plants were everywhere. He came up with a direct current, that went only 1 mile, but a man named Westinghouse had made a current that was alternating, and was a transformer. By 1898, there were 3,000 power stations powering over 2 million light bulbs. The affects that it had on daily lives were the birth of appliances, such as the refrigerator, and jobs were created. The development of the Industrial Revolution changed many things, and helped a good portion of them. Americans lives were made easier, and the good that it brought out is still used today. Great accomplishments will continue to occur, and make history such as the big explosion of the development of big industries.

Health Information and Communication Systems in Ireland

Health Information and Communication Systems in Ireland Is ICT a key enabler in ensuring seamless delivery of healthcare? A comparison between public and private ICT development in Ireland Abstract This study discusses the innovative changes that have taken place in Ireland in the field of healthcare due to the influx of information and communication technologies. Previous Information communication technologies (ICT), including telemedicine, present opportunities to address rural health-service delivery issues. The research shows that effective management of health services and the delivery of quality systems in Irish healthcare organizations have increased. In Ireland patients are expecting more of healthcare providers and are demanding higher standards of care and service. Simultaneously, those paying for health services have become more concerned about rising health costs and possible inefficiencies. As a result there is widespread interest in understanding what makes for an effective health service and in developing better practices to improve existing approaches to healthcare management in relation to ICT. This study highlights the developments in quality-service management in the Irish healthcare sector and focuses attention on the need for the development of a model for quality implementation in healthcare institutions. In sum the study shows that the development of (ICT) has facilitated the emergence of a complex global urban system in which many formerly lower-order cities have been carving out â€Å"niche† specialist functions serving urban fields of transnational dimension. Chapter1: Introduction Purpose of Study The purpose of this study is to highlight the development of the Information and communication system in Ireland and how it has revolutionized the healthcare sector in Ireland. Research Question This study focuses on the following research questions: What are the current trends of technological development in the Information and Communication Technology sector of Ireland? What are various challenges faced by the Irish healthcare system in relation to Information and Communication Technology? Significance of the Study This study is quite significant as it shows that the concept of globalisation has secured remarkable currency in the academic discourse of the late 20th century, despite ongoing questions regarding both its meaning and extent (Clark and Lund, 2000). The development of internationally integrated production and distribution systems, seen by many as the key feature of globalisation, has been a spatially uneven process. A key factor in this respect has been the differential ability of regions to engage in the informational economy, based on new information and communications technology (ICT), which is the main source of wealth creation and economic growth in the modern world (Castells, 2003). The result has been what Friedmann (2005) calls a process of ‘techno-apartheid’ which has divided the globe into ‘fast’ and ‘slow’ worlds (Knox, 2005), distinguished by the connectedness of individuals, groups and regions to the world of telematics. This echoes Ingersoll’s (2003, quoted in Knox, 2005) suggestion that the key division of the workforce is now that between those who have the capacity to operate ICT (the ‘cyberproletariat’) and those who do not (the ‘lumpentrash’). Golding (2006) makes a similar distinction between the ‘technoliterati’ and the ‘techno-poor’. While Knox defines the fast and slow worlds spatially, equating the former with the ‘triadic’ core and the latter with the remaining global periphery, Hoogvelt (2003) argues that the divide is, in essence, social rather than spatial, with elements of both worlds to be found in all regions of the globe. Thus, within advanced economies, a process of social polarisation has been widely reported (Friedmann, 2006 and Sassen, 2004) and has been intimately linked by Graham and Marvin (2006) to the development of ICT use. This is not to suggest that those who work in the fast world are homogeneously well-paid and affluent; rather, they represent a wide range of remuneration levels depending on such factors as economic sector, location, function, ethnic group and gender (Castells, 2006). What they do tend to have in common, however, is relative employment security due to the high demand level for their ICT skills. Rationale This study follows a logical approach and identifies the fact that both in Ireland as well as globally, there are major geographical variations in the relative balance between fast and slow worlds, with the former mainly to be found in the traditional core regions of North America, western Europe and Japan and an additional small group of newly industrialising countries which have had the institutional capacity to invest massively in modern ICT and associated educational infrastructures (Freeman, 2004). The slow world – found predominantly in the less developed countries of the global periphery and accounting for the bulk of the world’s population – is becoming increasingly marginalised and is moving, as Castells (2003, p. 37) puts it, â€Å"from a structural position of exploitation to a structural position of irrelevance†. Definition of Terms ICT: Information and Communication Technology: it is the study or business of developing and using technology to process information and aid communications. Sistem : SISTeM a soft systems methodology, stakeholder analysis and participative simulation modelling. NHS: (National Health Service) The organization providing national healthcare services in the UK. Chapter 2: Literature Review The process of quality implementation has become a key concern for those involved in hospital management in Ireland. In a national context, the effective management of health services and the delivery of quality systems in health-care institutions have increased in significance in recent years. In line with wider developments in other service industries, consumers (patients) are expecting more of health-care providers and are demanding higher standards of care and service. Simultaneously, those paying for health services have become more concerned about rising health costs and possible inefficiencies. As a result there is widespread interest in understanding what makes for an effective health service and in developing better practices to improve existing approaches to health-care management and delivery. In 2005 a comprehensive report on funding from the Commission on Health Funding highlighted that solutions to the problems faced by the Irish Health Service did not lie primarily in the system of funding, but rather in the way that services were planned, organised, and delivered. Similarly, in a report from the OECD (2003), it was argued that although the Irish health system had delivered a continuous improvement in health standards, there was still scope for further improvement in efficiency, and that this could be achieved through better allocation of resources. More recently, the government health strategy (DOHc, 2001) highlighted the requirement for a system to monitor progress and systematically evaluate the quality and effectiveness of health services. According to the strategy: Monitoring and evaluation must become intrinsic to the approach taken by people at all levels of the health services. Specifically, the strategy suggested that the way in which health and personal social services are planned, organised, and delivered has a significant effect on the health and well-being of the population. Organisational structures must be geared to the provision of a responsive, adaptable health system which meets the needs of the population effectively and at affordable cost. One of the guiding principles inherent in the published strategy was that of a â€Å"people-centred† health system. A responsive system must develop ways to engage with individuals and the wider community which receives its services. The health system must become more people-centred, with the interests of the public, patients, and clients being given greater prominence and influence in decision making at all levels (DOHc, 2001). According to Bowers (2001), major structural reform, coupled with strong management and political will, are required to ensure change for the better. In Bowers’ view, finance alone will not improve the system. Rather, a concentrated effort must be made to ensure a responsive and efficient service. As previously noted, a conclusion of the Report of the Commission on Health Funding (2005) was that the solution facing the Irish health services did not lie primarily in the system of funding but rather in the way that services were planned, organised, and delivered. This is reinforced by a recent report on the Irish health-care sector which suggested that the issues and challenges facing the health service are fundamentally the same as those outlined by the Commission on Health Funding, except that they are compounded by much higher expectations/demands by consumers (Deloitte and Touche, 2001). Thus, although modern health services have undergone radical change in many areas (Robins, 2003), managers of health services are currently reporting a large increase in the number of patients needing beds, with consequent ever-increasing waiting lists. Accident and emergency departments are under particular strain, and the difficulties of dealing with the growing needs of the increasing elderly population are beginning to become apparent. Although the Irish health service is free for all those requiring medical treatment through a publicly funded system, the current situation is hauntingly similar to that of the Victorian era of health care in Ireland. As a result, the Office for Health Management in Ireland (OHM, 2001) has suggested that current deficiencies in health-care provision and delivery underline the importance of providing quality service management and implementation in Irish health and personal social services. In achieving this aim, the OHM has contended that those working within the system must change how they go about their work and how they work together. Changed public-sector environment The focus on health-care service and quality has evolved from a more general interest in continuous improvement initiatives within the public sector. The prevalent trends in the private sector are towards continuous and pervasive change and increasing interdependencies, and it has been suggested that close parallels can be drawn between the private and public sectors. Public-sector organisations now find themselves in a cyclone of change as they attempt to adapt to turbulent environments in a pragmatic and systematic way (Lovell, 2004). In the UK and also in Ireland, these organisations have been subject to cuts in government spending, as well as demands for enhanced efficiency and effectiveness. In response to such changes, there has been a policy shift towards greater competition and an attempt to apply management practices from the private sector to the public domain. The Irish public sector has been officially pursuing change and reform through its strategic management initiative (SMI), a program for improving the management of the civil service which was formally launched in 2004 (Department of the Taoisearch, 2004). The SMI evolved from the growing internal and external pressures for better services and for more effective management of public services. In that context the continuous improvement of customer service has been a specific focus of the SMI since 2003, when the quality service initiative was launched. The program set out a series of quality principles according to which dealings with the wider public would be coordinated and managed. These initiatives aimed to make public administration more relevant to the citizens for whom the service exists, and simultaneously sought to remove barriers which have traditionally restricted performance and job satisfaction within the public sector. In recent years, Ireland has experienced a rise in consumerism. Increases in revenue available to fund public service provision have gone hand in hand with rising public expectations of standards of service. As a consequence, management skills and competences in providing for improved standards of customer service have become recognised as being central to delivering real transformation in the public sector. However, the development of such capabilities, particularly in relation to managing effective quality implementation, presents considerable challenges for those involved. Nowhere is this more evident than in the health-care sector. A review of recent international evidence points to the challenges of implementing quality service in health-care institutions. Gaucher and Coffey (2000) confirmed that implementing a process of total quality management (TQM) in health care is a pragmatic, specific, and systematic methodology. However, this requires a firm commitment from the leadership to change their former ways of working and doing business. Gaucher and Coffey (2000) cited many reasons for TQM failing – including poor leadership and a lack of management commitment – but also noted that revitalisation can rejuvenate the process. These authors asserted that the role of those implementing the process is to nurture and breathe energy into the process when enthusiasm and commitment are declining. The importance of the support of senior management for quality-management projects is also advocated by Berwick et al. (2000). These authors undertook a national demonstration project in the USA in the late 2000s and described how organisations could implement the entire quality-improvement process – from defining the problem through to implementing a solution and consolidating the gains (Berwick et al., 2000). A literature review carried out by Jackson (2005) identified that much work had been undertaken in the UK in determining the clinical effectiveness of many health-care organisations, but that very little research had been implemented in the area of managerial effectiveness. Furthermore, West (2001) determined that, in organisations that outperform others on different dimensions of performance, there was evidence that management is important, as are the combined efforts of individual clinicians and teams. There have been several approaches espoused for achieving quality management in health-care institutions, many of which have been technical and generic in their approaches (Moeller et al., 2000). Specifically, Donabedian (2000) introduced the concepts of structure, process, and outcomes, along with the development of self-assessment and accreditation through the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). In many instances these programs have met with mixed reactions, and their implementation has varied. A criticism levelled at hospital performance is that it has been rather insular, and has paid little attention to developments in related fields, such as organisational sociology, organisational behaviour, management studies, and human-resource management (West, 2001). If quality programs are to have lasting and significant effects, that they must follow a systemic approach such that all aspects of an organisation are integrated and focused on continuous improvement and customer satisfaction (Joss, 2004). A variety of approaches has been used to improve quality and to ensure its delivery, but not all have been successful. Indeed, some have merely added bureaucracy and higher costs to health care (Jackson, 2005; Ennis and Harrington, 2001). Recent research has shown that 45 per cent of patients experience some â€Å"medical mismanagement† and that 17 per cent suffer events which lead to a longer stay or more serious problems (Ovretveit, 2000). This is increasingly caused by complex systems of care which do not appear to be managed effectively. Joss and Kogan (2005) strongly recommended that a comprehensive set of criteria be included, against which to evaluate progress. These criteria should be based on the main requirements of TQM, and should include any additional factors generated by the organisation and/or by evaluators. A three-year evaluation of TQM in the National Health Scheme (NHS) indicated that there were clear factors which predicted successful implementation, the most important of which was the need to have a structured, pre-planned approach based on a thorough understanding of alternative approaches (Joss, 2004). Moreover, a recent study from the UK (O’Sullivan, 2005) demonstrated how one NHS Trust achieved continuous quality improvement through determination, education, and implementation, supported by visionary and involved leadership in all areas, a multi-talented enthusiastic clinical audit department, and a high-quality dedicated staff. Nabitz and Walburg (2000) suggested that possible solutions to quality problems might lie in the approach promoted by the European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM). The EFQM has developed a model to structure and review the quality-management processes of organisations. Self-assessment, benchmarking, external review, and quality awards are essential elements of this model and, as reported by Sanchez (2000), this approach represents an important means of achieving excellence in health care. Within the literature there are also many studies showing the benefits of applying models of quality implementation in health-care organisations (Naylor, 2005; Ruiz et al., 2005). Such studies have pointed to the real benefits that accrue to organisations which have used such approaches (Pitt, 2005). Business excellence methodology for quality improvement The introduction of internationally respected quality frameworks – the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award (MBNQA) in 2003, followed by the EFQM in 2005 – has provided an opportunity for organisations to self-assess, using the models of TQM and business excellence which underpin these frameworks. In this process of self-assessment, an opportunity exists to identify the strengths and weaknesses in the current management of operations. In the USA, the effectiveness of the Baldrige process has been lauded by many (Gaucher and Coffey, 2000) who have indicated that organisations can learn about best practices from Baldrige-winning companies, and will thus be assisted in developing a composite for excellence. Although the Baldrige criteria were developed for commercial institutions, there has been keen interest in the adaptation of the model within health-care organisations in the USA following a pilot health-care project in 2005. To date, no health-care entity has yet achieved Baldrige-winner status, although Gaucher and Coffey (2000) have asserted that it is only a matter of time before there is a health-care winner. Moreover, these authors went on to say that the true benefit of the Baldrige process is not about winning an award. Rather, it is about the provision of a road map for a journey – a framework for both incremental and breakthrough improvement and business excellence. Within the European context, since its introduction in 2001, the EFQM model has been attracting considerable interest across all sectors, and has become a well-recognised quality-management framework. Stahr et al. (2001) concurred with Gaucher and Coffey (2000) in stating that the model provides a means by which organisations can assess their paths and develop solutions to achieve excellence. Other authors have espoused the model as being surprisingly effective, with awards being presented to those firms considered to be the most accomplished exponents of TQM in Europe (Wilkes and Dale, 2005). Across European health care at an institutional level, an increasing number of organisations are making direct investments in the training of staff in the concepts of business excellence (Stahr et al., 2001; Jackson, 2001). The NHS Executive in the UK has provided a central lead in endorsing the model as an important framework for delivering on the clinical governance agenda. Furthermore the British Association of Medical Managers (BAMM) has promoted its use as a tool for organisational self-assessment (Stahr et al., 2001). Its use and adoption has been further supported by the British Quality Foundation which provides a major educational and support role in the use and adoption of the model in health care and other sectors across the corporate landscape. Without doubt, the future performance of health-care organisations will be assessed against wider goals than previously. There will be a greater emphasis on measuring organisational performance and, if performance is below par, rapid investigation and appropriate intervention will ensue (Naylor, 2005). Moeller (2001) concurred with this, and identified evaluation of health services as a prerequisite. However, Zairi et al. (2005) warned that measuring organisational effectiveness in the delivery of health care is a challenging task. Joss and Kogan (2005) strongly recommended that a comprehensive set of criteria should be included, against which to evaluate progress. This should be based on the main requirements of TQM, supplemented by other organisational criteria thought to be important by the evaluators. A three-year evaluation of TQM in the NHS indicated that there are clear factors which predict successful implementation – including awareness of the need to have a structured, pre-planned approach based on a thorough understanding of alternative approaches (Joss, 2004). Moreover, as demonstrated by O’Sullivan (2005), successful implementation requires the support of visionary and involved leaders in all areas, together with dedicated and educated staff. Examining organisational effectiveness in Irish health care As suggested by Nabitz and Walburg (2000), the solution to quality problems might lie in the approach promoted by the EFQM. As reported by Sanchez (2000), this approach represents an important means of achieving excellence in health care which concurs with earlier descriptions by Gaucher and Coffey (2000). Self-assessment can examine current practice and establish capability, thus driving improvement rather than a reaction to weaknesses in the current system (Russell, 2005). There are also many studies in the literature which show the benefits of applying the business excellence model for quality implementation in health-care organisations (Naylor, 2005; Jackson, 2005a; Nabitz and Klazinga, 2005; Arcelay et al., 2005). Such studies have pointed to real benefits that have accrued to organisations using such an approach. Furthermore, Jackson (2005a) demonstrated that the adoption of the principles of self-assessment and business excellence can lead to the achievement of a culture of continuous improvement. Russell (2005) noted that the adoption of the â€Å"outside-in† approach of the EFQM model enabled organisations to use the model as a developmental and management framework. For Arcelay et al. (2005), the model provided a global, systematic regular analysis of the activities and results by comparing them with the criteria of the excellence model. Moreover, the process made it possible to make comparisons with other private and public organisations. Using a systems view of an organisation enables managers to focus on the processes between the parts of an organisation, rather than on the parts themselves, which is similar to physicians using a systematic model in which to analyse signs and symptoms, and thus make a diagnosis. An effective organisation is one in which the total organisation, through its significant subparts and individuals, manages its work against goals and plans with a view to achieving these goals within an open system. Methods of management that have been developed in manufacturing environments are naturally regarded with scepticism in non-manufacturing sectors. However, according to West (2001), studies that have been conducted on the link between the organisation and management of services and quality of patient care can be criticised both theoretically and methodologically because of the many different mechanisms that may be operating at once to produce the relationship between volume and quality. West (2001) asserted that a more rigorous body of work exists on the performance of firms in the private sector, often conducted within the disciplines of organisational behaviour or human resource management. Ireland and the International ICT System Dublin has, in the 2000s, carved out several niche international functions for itself, one of which, call centre activities, has been the principal focus of this study. According to a report in The Irish Times (August 20, 2003), Ireland accounts for 30% of all international call centres located in western Europe. The great bulk of these are to be found in Dublin. The central role of ICT in call centre activities has facilitated their centralisation in Ireland, from where markets spread across Europe and even further afield can readily be served. As Sassen (2005, p. 56) has observed: â€Å"Information technologies, often thought of as neutralising geography, actually contribute to spatial concentration†. Call centre activities, therefore, have helped Ireland to escape the bounds of geographical peripherality, thereby contradicting Wegener’s (2005) gloomy prognosis which visualised cities in the periphery as inevitable losers from growing inter-urban competition in Europe. This has been cleverly portrayed in an IDA advertisement which shows Ireland at the centre of a surrounding group of disembodied European countries ( Fig. 1). These latter are no longer seen as being more or less distant from Ireland, but as constituting a set of different language and market territories, all equally accessible from Ireland. However, Dublin’s growing international reach and the growing technological sophistication of its economic base should not mask the fact that, structurally, it retains a dependent position within the international division of labour. Its rapid recent economic expansion has been largely based on the attraction of branch plant operations which remain poorly embedded in the local economy (Breathnach, 2005). à Ã‚ nd, while the rising skill levels associated with recent inward investment have facilitated substantial improvement in living standards generally, in the specific case of the call centre sector, much of the employment which has been created remains relatively poorly paid – a fact which is directly linked with the high proportion of women workers in the sector, despite their high skill levels. Furthermore, the rapid growth of the call centre sector in the 2000s looks increasingly unsustainable as the end of the decade approaches. Growing labour shortages are driving up labour costs which, in conjunction with increasing housing and transportation problems, are beginning to attenuate Dublin’s attractiveness as a call centre location: according to a 2005 survey of call centre locations in Great Britain and Ireland, reported by Allen (2005), Dublin had fallen to the 29th position of 46 locations surveyed, having been in the top 10 in 2006. The response of the IDA has been to devote additional resources to promoting non-Dublin locations for call centre projects. However, even if this is successful in the short run, in the longer term the future of call centre employment will be increasingly threatened by technological developments, such as speech recognition technology and especially the rapidly growing use of the internet for making reservations, placing orders and seeking information. The IDA has justified its promotion of the call centre sector, despite the inferior nature of much of the employment involved, largely on the grounds that it provides an initial base upon which more sophisticated forms of employment can be built. Its long-term strategy, in other words, is to encourage firms which have established call centres in Ireland to add on additional functions, such as financial management and software development, to these initial operations. Already there has been some success in this area of ‘shared services’ back-office activities: by mid-2003, some 25 such operations had been established, and were projected to employ over 3000 people by the year 2000 (information supplied by Forfà ¡s). Ultimately, however, all of these activities remain as back-office activities, whose essential linkages are external to the Irish economy. In other words, their Irish location is not crucial to the parent companies of these operations; rather, it is contingent on the availability of certain attractions which may either be transient or reproducible elsewhere (Allen, 2005). As Wilson (2005) has noted, call centres are essentially a highly footloose sector, with few local economic linkages and little fixed investment in machinery and equipment: they therefore can be relocated quite readily in the light of changing comparative factor conditions. The National Health Service (NHS) in the UK published its NHS Plan in July 2000 (http://www.nhs.uk/thenhsexplained), saying that patients and people were central to its radical reform of healthcare and that although this included more hospitals and beds, shorter waiting times and improved care for older people, an essential element was that patients should have more power and information. As Grimson et al. (2000) rightly comment, healthcare is an information-intensive business, with data on an enormous scale gathered by way of hospitals, clinics, laboratories and primary care surgeries. Central to any information-intensive business is, naturally, the effective sharing of that information and, in order to empower and better engage the patient, how best that can be done. Funded by the UK’s Department of Health, the British Library’s integrated Telemedicine Information Service (TIS), described in the latest edition of the NHSMagazine (http://www.nhs.uk/nhsmagazine), is to improve the take-up of telemedicine technology in the UK, reinforcing the importance that information and communication technologies (ICTs) are seen to have in the sharing of information and the engagement of patients in their healthcare. By way of explanation, the word â€Å"telemedicine† has been coined as a way of capturing, in only one word, how ICT is being used in healthcare. However, as Curry et al. (2003) rightly comment, terms such as telemedicine, teleconferencing, health informatics and medical informatics seem to be used interchangeably, and that there is some confusion as to what is, and is not, involved, citing various studys, including those of Preston at al. (2002) and Mark and Hodges (2001) to support their claim. As there is some disagreement with the term, we use in this study the meaning assigned by Perednia and Allen (2005), that is, the use of information technologies in helping to provide medical information and services in healthcare. Whatever its name, or its definition, it concerns, in one way or another, the mediating role that technology plays in the interaction between humans, whether patient or healthcare professional. At the time of writing, there are 138 telemedicine projects in the UK (http://www.tis.port.ac.uk/tm/owa/projects.allUK), and they cover aspects of healthcare as diverse as mental health, diabetes, foetal monitoring and accident and emergency care. Indeed, it points to one of the advantages of telemedicine; its applicability across a wide range of clinical issues. However, while these projects certainly cover a diversity of issues, they have something in common, that is, they address only one of these clinical matters. Each system is designed differently, is unlikely to be compatible with another, and needs different technical support and user training. Whilst such individual systems have proved useful in a particular context (see, for example, Gilmour et al., 2005; Jones et al., 2006; Lesher et al., 2005; Loane et al., 2005; Lowitt et al., 2005; Oakley et al., Health Information and Communication Systems in Ireland Health Information and Communication Systems in Ireland Is ICT a key enabler in ensuring seamless delivery of healthcare? A comparison between public and private ICT development in Ireland Abstract This study discusses the innovative changes that have taken place in Ireland in the field of healthcare due to the influx of information and communication technologies. Previous Information communication technologies (ICT), including telemedicine, present opportunities to address rural health-service delivery issues. The research shows that effective management of health services and the delivery of quality systems in Irish healthcare organizations have increased. In Ireland patients are expecting more of healthcare providers and are demanding higher standards of care and service. Simultaneously, those paying for health services have become more concerned about rising health costs and possible inefficiencies. As a result there is widespread interest in understanding what makes for an effective health service and in developing better practices to improve existing approaches to healthcare management in relation to ICT. This study highlights the developments in quality-service management in the Irish healthcare sector and focuses attention on the need for the development of a model for quality implementation in healthcare institutions. In sum the study shows that the development of (ICT) has facilitated the emergence of a complex global urban system in which many formerly lower-order cities have been carving out â€Å"niche† specialist functions serving urban fields of transnational dimension. Chapter1: Introduction Purpose of Study The purpose of this study is to highlight the development of the Information and communication system in Ireland and how it has revolutionized the healthcare sector in Ireland. Research Question This study focuses on the following research questions: What are the current trends of technological development in the Information and Communication Technology sector of Ireland? What are various challenges faced by the Irish healthcare system in relation to Information and Communication Technology? Significance of the Study This study is quite significant as it shows that the concept of globalisation has secured remarkable currency in the academic discourse of the late 20th century, despite ongoing questions regarding both its meaning and extent (Clark and Lund, 2000). The development of internationally integrated production and distribution systems, seen by many as the key feature of globalisation, has been a spatially uneven process. A key factor in this respect has been the differential ability of regions to engage in the informational economy, based on new information and communications technology (ICT), which is the main source of wealth creation and economic growth in the modern world (Castells, 2003). The result has been what Friedmann (2005) calls a process of ‘techno-apartheid’ which has divided the globe into ‘fast’ and ‘slow’ worlds (Knox, 2005), distinguished by the connectedness of individuals, groups and regions to the world of telematics. This echoes Ingersoll’s (2003, quoted in Knox, 2005) suggestion that the key division of the workforce is now that between those who have the capacity to operate ICT (the ‘cyberproletariat’) and those who do not (the ‘lumpentrash’). Golding (2006) makes a similar distinction between the ‘technoliterati’ and the ‘techno-poor’. While Knox defines the fast and slow worlds spatially, equating the former with the ‘triadic’ core and the latter with the remaining global periphery, Hoogvelt (2003) argues that the divide is, in essence, social rather than spatial, with elements of both worlds to be found in all regions of the globe. Thus, within advanced economies, a process of social polarisation has been widely reported (Friedmann, 2006 and Sassen, 2004) and has been intimately linked by Graham and Marvin (2006) to the development of ICT use. This is not to suggest that those who work in the fast world are homogeneously well-paid and affluent; rather, they represent a wide range of remuneration levels depending on such factors as economic sector, location, function, ethnic group and gender (Castells, 2006). What they do tend to have in common, however, is relative employment security due to the high demand level for their ICT skills. Rationale This study follows a logical approach and identifies the fact that both in Ireland as well as globally, there are major geographical variations in the relative balance between fast and slow worlds, with the former mainly to be found in the traditional core regions of North America, western Europe and Japan and an additional small group of newly industrialising countries which have had the institutional capacity to invest massively in modern ICT and associated educational infrastructures (Freeman, 2004). The slow world – found predominantly in the less developed countries of the global periphery and accounting for the bulk of the world’s population – is becoming increasingly marginalised and is moving, as Castells (2003, p. 37) puts it, â€Å"from a structural position of exploitation to a structural position of irrelevance†. Definition of Terms ICT: Information and Communication Technology: it is the study or business of developing and using technology to process information and aid communications. Sistem : SISTeM a soft systems methodology, stakeholder analysis and participative simulation modelling. NHS: (National Health Service) The organization providing national healthcare services in the UK. Chapter 2: Literature Review The process of quality implementation has become a key concern for those involved in hospital management in Ireland. In a national context, the effective management of health services and the delivery of quality systems in health-care institutions have increased in significance in recent years. In line with wider developments in other service industries, consumers (patients) are expecting more of health-care providers and are demanding higher standards of care and service. Simultaneously, those paying for health services have become more concerned about rising health costs and possible inefficiencies. As a result there is widespread interest in understanding what makes for an effective health service and in developing better practices to improve existing approaches to health-care management and delivery. In 2005 a comprehensive report on funding from the Commission on Health Funding highlighted that solutions to the problems faced by the Irish Health Service did not lie primarily in the system of funding, but rather in the way that services were planned, organised, and delivered. Similarly, in a report from the OECD (2003), it was argued that although the Irish health system had delivered a continuous improvement in health standards, there was still scope for further improvement in efficiency, and that this could be achieved through better allocation of resources. More recently, the government health strategy (DOHc, 2001) highlighted the requirement for a system to monitor progress and systematically evaluate the quality and effectiveness of health services. According to the strategy: Monitoring and evaluation must become intrinsic to the approach taken by people at all levels of the health services. Specifically, the strategy suggested that the way in which health and personal social services are planned, organised, and delivered has a significant effect on the health and well-being of the population. Organisational structures must be geared to the provision of a responsive, adaptable health system which meets the needs of the population effectively and at affordable cost. One of the guiding principles inherent in the published strategy was that of a â€Å"people-centred† health system. A responsive system must develop ways to engage with individuals and the wider community which receives its services. The health system must become more people-centred, with the interests of the public, patients, and clients being given greater prominence and influence in decision making at all levels (DOHc, 2001). According to Bowers (2001), major structural reform, coupled with strong management and political will, are required to ensure change for the better. In Bowers’ view, finance alone will not improve the system. Rather, a concentrated effort must be made to ensure a responsive and efficient service. As previously noted, a conclusion of the Report of the Commission on Health Funding (2005) was that the solution facing the Irish health services did not lie primarily in the system of funding but rather in the way that services were planned, organised, and delivered. This is reinforced by a recent report on the Irish health-care sector which suggested that the issues and challenges facing the health service are fundamentally the same as those outlined by the Commission on Health Funding, except that they are compounded by much higher expectations/demands by consumers (Deloitte and Touche, 2001). Thus, although modern health services have undergone radical change in many areas (Robins, 2003), managers of health services are currently reporting a large increase in the number of patients needing beds, with consequent ever-increasing waiting lists. Accident and emergency departments are under particular strain, and the difficulties of dealing with the growing needs of the increasing elderly population are beginning to become apparent. Although the Irish health service is free for all those requiring medical treatment through a publicly funded system, the current situation is hauntingly similar to that of the Victorian era of health care in Ireland. As a result, the Office for Health Management in Ireland (OHM, 2001) has suggested that current deficiencies in health-care provision and delivery underline the importance of providing quality service management and implementation in Irish health and personal social services. In achieving this aim, the OHM has contended that those working within the system must change how they go about their work and how they work together. Changed public-sector environment The focus on health-care service and quality has evolved from a more general interest in continuous improvement initiatives within the public sector. The prevalent trends in the private sector are towards continuous and pervasive change and increasing interdependencies, and it has been suggested that close parallels can be drawn between the private and public sectors. Public-sector organisations now find themselves in a cyclone of change as they attempt to adapt to turbulent environments in a pragmatic and systematic way (Lovell, 2004). In the UK and also in Ireland, these organisations have been subject to cuts in government spending, as well as demands for enhanced efficiency and effectiveness. In response to such changes, there has been a policy shift towards greater competition and an attempt to apply management practices from the private sector to the public domain. The Irish public sector has been officially pursuing change and reform through its strategic management initiative (SMI), a program for improving the management of the civil service which was formally launched in 2004 (Department of the Taoisearch, 2004). The SMI evolved from the growing internal and external pressures for better services and for more effective management of public services. In that context the continuous improvement of customer service has been a specific focus of the SMI since 2003, when the quality service initiative was launched. The program set out a series of quality principles according to which dealings with the wider public would be coordinated and managed. These initiatives aimed to make public administration more relevant to the citizens for whom the service exists, and simultaneously sought to remove barriers which have traditionally restricted performance and job satisfaction within the public sector. In recent years, Ireland has experienced a rise in consumerism. Increases in revenue available to fund public service provision have gone hand in hand with rising public expectations of standards of service. As a consequence, management skills and competences in providing for improved standards of customer service have become recognised as being central to delivering real transformation in the public sector. However, the development of such capabilities, particularly in relation to managing effective quality implementation, presents considerable challenges for those involved. Nowhere is this more evident than in the health-care sector. A review of recent international evidence points to the challenges of implementing quality service in health-care institutions. Gaucher and Coffey (2000) confirmed that implementing a process of total quality management (TQM) in health care is a pragmatic, specific, and systematic methodology. However, this requires a firm commitment from the leadership to change their former ways of working and doing business. Gaucher and Coffey (2000) cited many reasons for TQM failing – including poor leadership and a lack of management commitment – but also noted that revitalisation can rejuvenate the process. These authors asserted that the role of those implementing the process is to nurture and breathe energy into the process when enthusiasm and commitment are declining. The importance of the support of senior management for quality-management projects is also advocated by Berwick et al. (2000). These authors undertook a national demonstration project in the USA in the late 2000s and described how organisations could implement the entire quality-improvement process – from defining the problem through to implementing a solution and consolidating the gains (Berwick et al., 2000). A literature review carried out by Jackson (2005) identified that much work had been undertaken in the UK in determining the clinical effectiveness of many health-care organisations, but that very little research had been implemented in the area of managerial effectiveness. Furthermore, West (2001) determined that, in organisations that outperform others on different dimensions of performance, there was evidence that management is important, as are the combined efforts of individual clinicians and teams. There have been several approaches espoused for achieving quality management in health-care institutions, many of which have been technical and generic in their approaches (Moeller et al., 2000). Specifically, Donabedian (2000) introduced the concepts of structure, process, and outcomes, along with the development of self-assessment and accreditation through the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). In many instances these programs have met with mixed reactions, and their implementation has varied. A criticism levelled at hospital performance is that it has been rather insular, and has paid little attention to developments in related fields, such as organisational sociology, organisational behaviour, management studies, and human-resource management (West, 2001). If quality programs are to have lasting and significant effects, that they must follow a systemic approach such that all aspects of an organisation are integrated and focused on continuous improvement and customer satisfaction (Joss, 2004). A variety of approaches has been used to improve quality and to ensure its delivery, but not all have been successful. Indeed, some have merely added bureaucracy and higher costs to health care (Jackson, 2005; Ennis and Harrington, 2001). Recent research has shown that 45 per cent of patients experience some â€Å"medical mismanagement† and that 17 per cent suffer events which lead to a longer stay or more serious problems (Ovretveit, 2000). This is increasingly caused by complex systems of care which do not appear to be managed effectively. Joss and Kogan (2005) strongly recommended that a comprehensive set of criteria be included, against which to evaluate progress. These criteria should be based on the main requirements of TQM, and should include any additional factors generated by the organisation and/or by evaluators. A three-year evaluation of TQM in the National Health Scheme (NHS) indicated that there were clear factors which predicted successful implementation, the most important of which was the need to have a structured, pre-planned approach based on a thorough understanding of alternative approaches (Joss, 2004). Moreover, a recent study from the UK (O’Sullivan, 2005) demonstrated how one NHS Trust achieved continuous quality improvement through determination, education, and implementation, supported by visionary and involved leadership in all areas, a multi-talented enthusiastic clinical audit department, and a high-quality dedicated staff. Nabitz and Walburg (2000) suggested that possible solutions to quality problems might lie in the approach promoted by the European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM). The EFQM has developed a model to structure and review the quality-management processes of organisations. Self-assessment, benchmarking, external review, and quality awards are essential elements of this model and, as reported by Sanchez (2000), this approach represents an important means of achieving excellence in health care. Within the literature there are also many studies showing the benefits of applying models of quality implementation in health-care organisations (Naylor, 2005; Ruiz et al., 2005). Such studies have pointed to the real benefits that accrue to organisations which have used such approaches (Pitt, 2005). Business excellence methodology for quality improvement The introduction of internationally respected quality frameworks – the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award (MBNQA) in 2003, followed by the EFQM in 2005 – has provided an opportunity for organisations to self-assess, using the models of TQM and business excellence which underpin these frameworks. In this process of self-assessment, an opportunity exists to identify the strengths and weaknesses in the current management of operations. In the USA, the effectiveness of the Baldrige process has been lauded by many (Gaucher and Coffey, 2000) who have indicated that organisations can learn about best practices from Baldrige-winning companies, and will thus be assisted in developing a composite for excellence. Although the Baldrige criteria were developed for commercial institutions, there has been keen interest in the adaptation of the model within health-care organisations in the USA following a pilot health-care project in 2005. To date, no health-care entity has yet achieved Baldrige-winner status, although Gaucher and Coffey (2000) have asserted that it is only a matter of time before there is a health-care winner. Moreover, these authors went on to say that the true benefit of the Baldrige process is not about winning an award. Rather, it is about the provision of a road map for a journey – a framework for both incremental and breakthrough improvement and business excellence. Within the European context, since its introduction in 2001, the EFQM model has been attracting considerable interest across all sectors, and has become a well-recognised quality-management framework. Stahr et al. (2001) concurred with Gaucher and Coffey (2000) in stating that the model provides a means by which organisations can assess their paths and develop solutions to achieve excellence. Other authors have espoused the model as being surprisingly effective, with awards being presented to those firms considered to be the most accomplished exponents of TQM in Europe (Wilkes and Dale, 2005). Across European health care at an institutional level, an increasing number of organisations are making direct investments in the training of staff in the concepts of business excellence (Stahr et al., 2001; Jackson, 2001). The NHS Executive in the UK has provided a central lead in endorsing the model as an important framework for delivering on the clinical governance agenda. Furthermore the British Association of Medical Managers (BAMM) has promoted its use as a tool for organisational self-assessment (Stahr et al., 2001). Its use and adoption has been further supported by the British Quality Foundation which provides a major educational and support role in the use and adoption of the model in health care and other sectors across the corporate landscape. Without doubt, the future performance of health-care organisations will be assessed against wider goals than previously. There will be a greater emphasis on measuring organisational performance and, if performance is below par, rapid investigation and appropriate intervention will ensue (Naylor, 2005). Moeller (2001) concurred with this, and identified evaluation of health services as a prerequisite. However, Zairi et al. (2005) warned that measuring organisational effectiveness in the delivery of health care is a challenging task. Joss and Kogan (2005) strongly recommended that a comprehensive set of criteria should be included, against which to evaluate progress. This should be based on the main requirements of TQM, supplemented by other organisational criteria thought to be important by the evaluators. A three-year evaluation of TQM in the NHS indicated that there are clear factors which predict successful implementation – including awareness of the need to have a structured, pre-planned approach based on a thorough understanding of alternative approaches (Joss, 2004). Moreover, as demonstrated by O’Sullivan (2005), successful implementation requires the support of visionary and involved leaders in all areas, together with dedicated and educated staff. Examining organisational effectiveness in Irish health care As suggested by Nabitz and Walburg (2000), the solution to quality problems might lie in the approach promoted by the EFQM. As reported by Sanchez (2000), this approach represents an important means of achieving excellence in health care which concurs with earlier descriptions by Gaucher and Coffey (2000). Self-assessment can examine current practice and establish capability, thus driving improvement rather than a reaction to weaknesses in the current system (Russell, 2005). There are also many studies in the literature which show the benefits of applying the business excellence model for quality implementation in health-care organisations (Naylor, 2005; Jackson, 2005a; Nabitz and Klazinga, 2005; Arcelay et al., 2005). Such studies have pointed to real benefits that have accrued to organisations using such an approach. Furthermore, Jackson (2005a) demonstrated that the adoption of the principles of self-assessment and business excellence can lead to the achievement of a culture of continuous improvement. Russell (2005) noted that the adoption of the â€Å"outside-in† approach of the EFQM model enabled organisations to use the model as a developmental and management framework. For Arcelay et al. (2005), the model provided a global, systematic regular analysis of the activities and results by comparing them with the criteria of the excellence model. Moreover, the process made it possible to make comparisons with other private and public organisations. Using a systems view of an organisation enables managers to focus on the processes between the parts of an organisation, rather than on the parts themselves, which is similar to physicians using a systematic model in which to analyse signs and symptoms, and thus make a diagnosis. An effective organisation is one in which the total organisation, through its significant subparts and individuals, manages its work against goals and plans with a view to achieving these goals within an open system. Methods of management that have been developed in manufacturing environments are naturally regarded with scepticism in non-manufacturing sectors. However, according to West (2001), studies that have been conducted on the link between the organisation and management of services and quality of patient care can be criticised both theoretically and methodologically because of the many different mechanisms that may be operating at once to produce the relationship between volume and quality. West (2001) asserted that a more rigorous body of work exists on the performance of firms in the private sector, often conducted within the disciplines of organisational behaviour or human resource management. Ireland and the International ICT System Dublin has, in the 2000s, carved out several niche international functions for itself, one of which, call centre activities, has been the principal focus of this study. According to a report in The Irish Times (August 20, 2003), Ireland accounts for 30% of all international call centres located in western Europe. The great bulk of these are to be found in Dublin. The central role of ICT in call centre activities has facilitated their centralisation in Ireland, from where markets spread across Europe and even further afield can readily be served. As Sassen (2005, p. 56) has observed: â€Å"Information technologies, often thought of as neutralising geography, actually contribute to spatial concentration†. Call centre activities, therefore, have helped Ireland to escape the bounds of geographical peripherality, thereby contradicting Wegener’s (2005) gloomy prognosis which visualised cities in the periphery as inevitable losers from growing inter-urban competition in Europe. This has been cleverly portrayed in an IDA advertisement which shows Ireland at the centre of a surrounding group of disembodied European countries ( Fig. 1). These latter are no longer seen as being more or less distant from Ireland, but as constituting a set of different language and market territories, all equally accessible from Ireland. However, Dublin’s growing international reach and the growing technological sophistication of its economic base should not mask the fact that, structurally, it retains a dependent position within the international division of labour. Its rapid recent economic expansion has been largely based on the attraction of branch plant operations which remain poorly embedded in the local economy (Breathnach, 2005). à Ã‚ nd, while the rising skill levels associated with recent inward investment have facilitated substantial improvement in living standards generally, in the specific case of the call centre sector, much of the employment which has been created remains relatively poorly paid – a fact which is directly linked with the high proportion of women workers in the sector, despite their high skill levels. Furthermore, the rapid growth of the call centre sector in the 2000s looks increasingly unsustainable as the end of the decade approaches. Growing labour shortages are driving up labour costs which, in conjunction with increasing housing and transportation problems, are beginning to attenuate Dublin’s attractiveness as a call centre location: according to a 2005 survey of call centre locations in Great Britain and Ireland, reported by Allen (2005), Dublin had fallen to the 29th position of 46 locations surveyed, having been in the top 10 in 2006. The response of the IDA has been to devote additional resources to promoting non-Dublin locations for call centre projects. However, even if this is successful in the short run, in the longer term the future of call centre employment will be increasingly threatened by technological developments, such as speech recognition technology and especially the rapidly growing use of the internet for making reservations, placing orders and seeking information. The IDA has justified its promotion of the call centre sector, despite the inferior nature of much of the employment involved, largely on the grounds that it provides an initial base upon which more sophisticated forms of employment can be built. Its long-term strategy, in other words, is to encourage firms which have established call centres in Ireland to add on additional functions, such as financial management and software development, to these initial operations. Already there has been some success in this area of ‘shared services’ back-office activities: by mid-2003, some 25 such operations had been established, and were projected to employ over 3000 people by the year 2000 (information supplied by Forfà ¡s). Ultimately, however, all of these activities remain as back-office activities, whose essential linkages are external to the Irish economy. In other words, their Irish location is not crucial to the parent companies of these operations; rather, it is contingent on the availability of certain attractions which may either be transient or reproducible elsewhere (Allen, 2005). As Wilson (2005) has noted, call centres are essentially a highly footloose sector, with few local economic linkages and little fixed investment in machinery and equipment: they therefore can be relocated quite readily in the light of changing comparative factor conditions. The National Health Service (NHS) in the UK published its NHS Plan in July 2000 (http://www.nhs.uk/thenhsexplained), saying that patients and people were central to its radical reform of healthcare and that although this included more hospitals and beds, shorter waiting times and improved care for older people, an essential element was that patients should have more power and information. As Grimson et al. (2000) rightly comment, healthcare is an information-intensive business, with data on an enormous scale gathered by way of hospitals, clinics, laboratories and primary care surgeries. Central to any information-intensive business is, naturally, the effective sharing of that information and, in order to empower and better engage the patient, how best that can be done. Funded by the UK’s Department of Health, the British Library’s integrated Telemedicine Information Service (TIS), described in the latest edition of the NHSMagazine (http://www.nhs.uk/nhsmagazine), is to improve the take-up of telemedicine technology in the UK, reinforcing the importance that information and communication technologies (ICTs) are seen to have in the sharing of information and the engagement of patients in their healthcare. By way of explanation, the word â€Å"telemedicine† has been coined as a way of capturing, in only one word, how ICT is being used in healthcare. However, as Curry et al. (2003) rightly comment, terms such as telemedicine, teleconferencing, health informatics and medical informatics seem to be used interchangeably, and that there is some confusion as to what is, and is not, involved, citing various studys, including those of Preston at al. (2002) and Mark and Hodges (2001) to support their claim. As there is some disagreement with the term, we use in this study the meaning assigned by Perednia and Allen (2005), that is, the use of information technologies in helping to provide medical information and services in healthcare. Whatever its name, or its definition, it concerns, in one way or another, the mediating role that technology plays in the interaction between humans, whether patient or healthcare professional. At the time of writing, there are 138 telemedicine projects in the UK (http://www.tis.port.ac.uk/tm/owa/projects.allUK), and they cover aspects of healthcare as diverse as mental health, diabetes, foetal monitoring and accident and emergency care. Indeed, it points to one of the advantages of telemedicine; its applicability across a wide range of clinical issues. However, while these projects certainly cover a diversity of issues, they have something in common, that is, they address only one of these clinical matters. Each system is designed differently, is unlikely to be compatible with another, and needs different technical support and user training. Whilst such individual systems have proved useful in a particular context (see, for example, Gilmour et al., 2005; Jones et al., 2006; Lesher et al., 2005; Loane et al., 2005; Lowitt et al., 2005; Oakley et al.,